In 1994, the small African country of Rwanda experienced one of the worst genocides in modern history. Over a one-hundred-day period, an estimated 800,000 people were murdered. The genocide shocked the world and left Rwanda devastated.
But if you visit Rwanda today, you would probably be surprised at that history.
The country is often described as one of Africaโs greatest success stories. Its capital city, Kigali, is known for being clean, organised, and relatively safe. In fact, Rwanda has been called the โSingapore of Africa,โ thanks to its economic growth and plans for development.
However, not everyone agrees with this positive image. Rwanda is also a tightly controlled political system. Opposition parties face serious restrictions, independent media is limited, and the government closely controls political life.
Is Rwanda an inspiring economic miracle and a model for other developing countries? Or is it an authoritarian state that prioritises control and stability over democracy?
In this episode, I want to explore Rwandaโs history, its rapid economic transformation, and the debate between democracy and development!
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Vocabulary
- Genocide (Noun): The deliberate and systematic killing of a large group of people, especially based on ethnicity, religion, or nationality.
- The 1994 Rwanda genocide resulted in around 800,000 people being killed in just a few months.
- Economic growth (Noun phrase): An increase in a countryโs production of goods and services over time.
- Many governments aim to increase economic growth by encouraging investment and trade.
- Authoritarian (Adjective): Relating to a political system where power is concentrated in one leader or small group with limited political freedoms.
- In an authoritarian government, citizens may have very little influence over political decisions.
- Ethnic group (Noun phrase): A group of people who share common cultural traditions, language, or ancestry.
- Rwanda has several ethnic groups, including the Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.
- Militia (Noun): An armed group of civilians, often organised for military purposes.
- During the conflict, local militias set up roadblocks to control movement in the region.
- Business-friendly (Adjective): Attractive or supportive for companies and investors.
- The government introduced new policies to make the country more business-friendly.
- Instability (Noun): A situation lacking stability, often involving conflict or political uncertainty.
- Political instability can discourage foreign companies from investing in a country.
Rwanda Basics and Geography
โLet’s start by first introducing a little about the country of Rwanda.
Rwanda is a small country located in East Central Africa. It sits in quite an important part of the continent. To the north of Rwanda is Uganda. To the east is Tanzania. To the south is Burundi. And to the west is the much larger Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Rwanda’s capital city is Kigali. Kigali is a quickly developing urban center, and it has become known for its cleanliness and its organization.
Geographically, Rwanda is small, landlocked, and very densely [00:05:00] populated. The country has no coastline and relatively limited natural resources. Especially limited natural resources compared to its neighbors.
For example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the DRC, its neighbor to the west, is one of the most resource rich countries in the world.
Much of Rwanda is covered in rolling hills and green mountains, so the country has sometimes been called “the Land of a Thousand Hills”.
Pre-Colonial Rwanda
When we are talking about Rwanda or any country in Africa, we need to acknowledge the history of colonialism and European influence on the continent. In fact, I have an episode planned about the “Scramble for Africa“. It might have already been released or it is coming soon, which will talk about this topic in more detail.
But Rwanda is slightly unique in Africa, as it was actually a kingdom [00:06:00] before colonization. Most African countries, especially those below the Sahara desert, we say sub-Sahara, have borders that were drawn by European countries. European countries made artificial countries in Africa.
Rwanda, though, was actually a nation state before Europeans arrived. It’s difficult to exactly state the origins of Rwanda, but Twa and Hutu people have been living in the region for over a thousand years. And Tutsi people began slowly migrating into the area around 600 years ago.
By the 16th century, there was a small kingdom led by the Tutsi rulers. The Tutsi though were the minority in the region.
I will use the terms Tutsi and Hutu quite a lot in the next few minutes, and I’ve probably pronounced them wrong because I don’t speak any of the languages spoken [00:07:00] in Africa. But Tutsi and Hutu are the two main ethnic groups in Rwanda.
Over the years, the Tutsi gained social and economic power over the Hutu people. But it was not necessarily easy to tell apart Tutsi and Hutu people. There was a lot of intermarriage, which meant people married each other across these ethnic boundaries, and both Tutsi and Hutu people used the same languages.
Based on stereotypes, the Tutsi are thought of as taller and lighter skinned, while the Hutu are shorter and darker skinned, but this is not always the case. And identity was quite fluid in Rwanda.
And I mentioned this because it is so important to Rwanda’s history.
Colonial Rule and Division
In the late 19th century, Rwanda was colonized by Germany. After the defeat of Germany in World War I control [00:08:00] of Rwanda was transferred to Belgium.
During the colonial period, the European powers made decisions that reinforced the ethnic divisions in Randan society. They made decisions that formalized these divisions.
They decided to categorize the population into three main groups. The Hutu, which were the majority group, the Tutsi, the minority group, and the Twa, a much smaller indigenous group.
The Belgian rulers introduced identity cards that officially labeled people by their ethnicity. These policies made identity a much more fixed and political thing in Rwanda.
As I mentioned, it had been previously quite fluid, quite flexible identity, but due to the European governments, they introduced these identity cards that made it clear and obvious and fixed which identity you were.
[00:09:00] Rwanda gained independence in 1962, but it was definitely not a stable country. There was significant ethnic violence and political tension between the different ethnic groups. Many Tutsis fled Rwanda and became refugees in other countries.
1994 Genocide Explained
The most tragic event in Rwanda’s modern history and perhaps the modern history of Africa occurred in 1994. That year, Rwanda experienced one of the fastest and most devastating genocides that had ever been seen.
The violence began on April 6th, 1994 when Rwanda’s president was killed. The plane he was traveling in was shot down near the capital city.
Within hours of the crash, extremist leaders and militias began organizing a campaign of mass killing. Over the next 100 days, an estimated 800,000 people were [00:10:00] murdered. Most of the victims were Tutsis, the minority ethnic group in Rwanda, but also many moderate Hutus, including people who opposed violence or supported peace, were also killed.
The genocide was not random violence. It was highly organized.
Militias, such as the Interahamwe, set up roadblocks. They searched houses and they used people’s identity cards to identify their ethnicity. And if they were a Tutsi, they would be killed.
And it wasn’t just militias. People like government officials and soldiers, local politicians, all of these kinds of people were actively involved in organizing the killings.
The international community has been seriously and deservedly criticized for its response. A small United Nations peacekeeping force was actually already in Rwanda, but it had limited resources [00:11:00] and most foreign governments chose not to intervene.
Basically, the UN let the genocide happen.
The genocide finally ended when the rebel group known as the Rwandan Patriotic Front advanced across the country and captured Kigali. The group was led by Paul Kagame, who we will talk about quite a lot in the next few minutes.
By the time the violence stopped, the country had been absolutely devastated. Millions of people had been displaced and killed. Communities had been torn apart and the country’s infrastructure was badly damaged.
Rebuilding and Economic Boom
But in the decades since 1994, Rwanda has undergone a transformation. I guess It’s undergone an amazing transformation.
Rwanda has been praised as one of Africa’s success stories. Perhaps its most impressive development story. It has been claimed that the country has achieved [00:12:00] rapid economic growth, improved public services, and strong stability in a relatively short period of time.
Economically, Rwanda has experienced consistent and high growth rates. Before COVID-19, the country’s economy was growing by around 7 to 8% per year. Since COVID, the growth has been even greater. Last year, for example, the country’s economy grew by 11.8% in just one quarter.
This economic growth has led to significant reductions in poverty and some big improvements in infrastructure. There is also a small but expanding middle class developing. For example, in 2017 40% of Rwandans were in poverty. Today that number is closer to 25%.
Kigali and Branding Rwanda
Kigali, Rwanda’s capital, is a great example of Rwanda’s transformation. I have a few friends [00:13:00] who regularly work throughout Africa and they have told me that Kigali was one of the nicer cities they have been to.
Generally, it’s clean and well organized and tends to be safer than many other major cities in Central Africa. Plastic bags have been banned in Kigali and citizens participate in monthly community service days where people work together on public projects, maybe cleaning the streets or repairing broken benches.
And Rwanda has tried to position itself as a business-friendly country. For years, it ranked highly in the World Bank’s “Ease of Doing Business” reports, which were produced by the World Bank before those reports were discontinued.
The government has spent years trying to encourage foreign investment. They’re also trying to expand Rwanda’s digital resources and build Rwandan tourism.
Rwanda is [00:14:00] especially known for what’s called “conference tourism”. This means Rwanda likes to host conferences. They host international meetings or global summits. You can go to Africa and host your big meeting.
I can think of a few examples of the Rwandan government’s efforts to expand Rwanda’s reputation.
Arsenal Football Club, one of the most famous and successful teams in England’s football history, have been sponsored by Visit Rwanda for eight years. Every week, millions of people around the world see Rwanda being advertised throughout football stadiums and matches.
And Rwanda actually reached an agreement with the UK a few years ago. That agreement would have allowed the UK to send illegal immigrants from around the world to Rwanda. In return, Rwanda would get some big investment from the UK and a boost in reputation. [00:15:00] This scheme has now been canceled though.
Furthermore, Rwanda is known for the involvement of women in politics. Rwanda has the highest percentage of women in Parliament anywhere in the world. 63% of seats in the Rwandan Parliament are held by women.
So supporters of the Rwandan government argue that all of these achievements are the result of strong development policies. And because of this, Rwanda is sometimes compared to Singapore. Singapore is an another place known for mixing economic development, with a powerful and highly organized state.
Elections and Political Control
But Rwanda is not a perfect country, of course. It’s definitely not a perfect country. And it is certainly not politically free or democratic. Rwanda holds regular elections, but I would argue the not real or fair elections. You can make your own mind up. Let me explain.
[00:16:00] President Paul Kagame has repeatedly won presidential elections and usually receives more than 90% of the votes. Actually, in 2017, he received 98.63% of the vote. That’s quite a lot. But then he beat his record in 2024 when he got 99% of the vote.
Does that sound like a real election result to you?
In 2015, Rwanda held a referendum that changed the constitution and extended presidential term limits. Because of this, Paul Kagame will be able to stay as president for many more years.
He was the effective leader of Rwanda between 1994 when he led the rebels that ended the genocide and 2000 when the country held its next elections. And then he has won every election since the year 2000.
Opposition politicians have not found it easy to [00:17:00] campaign against him. Some of them have been arrested, some of them have been forced into exile.
Another criticism of Rwanda involves press freedom and the freedom of expression. The government has a really tight control over the media.
Rwanda also has laws against what is called “genocide ideology“. These laws were introduced to prevent hate speech and prevent the return of ethnic violence. But they have also been used to limit any criticism, especially political criticism.
And several international human rights organizations, including Human Rights Watch, have published reports raising concerns about Rwanda’s political environment.
But the Rwandan government always rejects any accusations.
DRC Conflict and Regional Security
Rwanda is also really involved in the politics and security of Central Africa, particularly in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The eastern [00:18:00] region of the DRC has experienced decades of instability. There’s lots of armed conflict, competing militias, rebel groups.
Maybe I’ll do an episode on the Congo in the future. ’cause the DRC is such a unique and interesting and sad story I guess.
The eastern region of the DRC borders Rwanda, and violence there has often had consequences for Rwanda. Refugees or violence spilling over the border.
Rwanda has been accused of supporting certain rebel groups, which operate in eastern Congo, and this is part of that long running, highly complex regional conflict. There’s various countries involved, and mainly the competition is over natural resources.
Congo is one of the most resource rich countries in the world. Rwanda’s government, again though, denies directly supporting rebel movements. They describe their foreign [00:19:00] policy as security driven.
And they argue that the 1994 genocide means the country must be really cautious and very nervous about any potential threat in the region.
Democracy vs Development Debate
So to end this episode, I want to think a little bit about democracy and development.
If you are a developing country, what is the best political system to help your country grow and modernize?
Some people argue that authoritarian governments bring faster economic progress. Authoritarian regimes usually have a strong central leader, a government. And this kind of strong central control lets you make decisions quickly.
You can plan long-term policies, and kind of put your own laws in whenever you want. But I think authoritarian governments only help development when economic growth is good, when corruption is low, and when the [00:20:00] government is genuinely working to improve the country.
This is just not the case in most authoritarian regimes. Many authoritarian regimes are just interested in making the leaders of the country rich and powerful.
Other people argue that democracy is essential for development, because democracy protects freedoms and allows citizens to challenge bad policies.
What do you think matters more, stability or political freedom?
Supporters of Rwanda sometimes compare the country to places like Singapore or China. Both Singapore and China have been known for very strong governments and very strong control, but combined with amazing development and amazing economic growth.
However, Rwanda is also unique. Unlike many other countries, Rwanda’s modern politics is always going to be in the context of a genocide, the 1994 [00:21:00] genocide. And that tragedy deeply influences Rwandan society.
For many people in Rwanda, the main priority, the most important thing, is not necessarily economic growth, the most important thing is preventing violence and social divisions. The most important thing is preventing another genocide, which makes Rwanda a unique place.
Final Thought
Is Rwanda an economic miracle or an authoritarian state?
I guess it’s both, at the same time. Rwanda has managed to rebuild itself after one of the worst tragedies in history. It has a growing economy, developing cities, and it’s relatively stable and well organized, at least compared to some of its neighboring countries.
But at the same time, Rwanda [00:22:00] has a tightly controlled political system. Opposition is limited, and all power is in the hands of Paul Kagame.
Whether Rwanda is a good model for development, probably depends on what you value more. Stability and economic growth… or political freedom and democratic competition.
And perhaps the most important questions for Rwanda are about what happens next?
Can Rwanda keep growing? And can it stay stable in the long term? What happens if growth stops or slows down? What happens if their president is no longer president and they need a new leader? And will Rwanda become more open in the future?
What do you think?
Have you heard of Rwanda before? What do you think about Rwanda’s history? And what do you think is most important for development, democracy or stability? What do you [00:23:00] think is the most important thing for a country like Rwanda to grow and modernize and develop?
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